Critical Thinking Slide 10

CRITICAL THINKING & PRACTICAL REASONING

Session 10 – INDUCTIVE REASONING IN THE SCIENCES & EVERYDAY LIFE( PART 1)

Session Overview
•This session is dedicated to inductive reasoning ( as found in the sciences and everyday life). It is to enable students know the methods of scientific or empirical research- how data are presented and conclusions drawn. And the quality of reasoning contained in scientific or empirical claims.
•Goals and Objectives
At the end of the session, the student will
1. Will be able to distinguish between verifiable and confirmable statements.
2. Types of hypothesis.
3. Account for the predictive power of hypotheses.

Session Outline
The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows:
•Topic One: INDUCTIVE REASONING
•Topic Two : CONTRASTING VERIFIABLE AND CONFIRMABLE STATEMENTS.
(a). Verifiable statement(particular statement)
(b). Confirmable statement(general statement)
•Topic Three: THE TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
(a). law-like Hypothesis.
(b). Statistical Hypothesis.
•Topic Four: PREDICTIVE POWER OF HYPOTHESES

Topic One
INDUCTIVE REASONING

WHAT IS IT.
•In session 8 we discussed the two types of arguments; “deductive” and “inductive”. In this session we look at inductive argument again.
•We defined inductive argument as an argument where the premises provide good reasons or evidence to support the probability of the conclusion being true and thus it is possible for the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false without any contradiction (unlike a deductive argument).
• The premises of inductive argument are treated as evidence, data, or observation reports or research findings that support the conclusion.

• The quality and quantity or how good the evidence provided by the premises are will determine the degree of probability of the conclusion being true, believable or acceptable.
•Examples:
(1). For the past twenty years of my life it has been raining every Friday. Tomorrow is Friday. Therefore, tomorrow it will rain.

(2). For the past three weeks it has been raining every Friday.
Tomorrow is Friday. So tomorrow, it will rain.

(3). Every Friday it rains. Every Fs is Rs
Tomorrow is Friday. = Tomorrow is F
So, tomorrow it will rain. So, Tomorrow is R.

•If we look at the above examples, E.g1 and E.g2 are inductive arguments because it is possible for the conclusion to be false even when the premises are true. However based on the evidence provided in the premises the conclusion of E.g1 is more likely to be true than that of E.g2. this is because an evidence of “raining on every Friday for the past twenty years” is stronger than an evidence of “raining on every Friday for the past three weeks”. So E.g1 is a good inductive reasoning whilst E.g2 is weak inductive reasoning. In fact the probability of the conclusion of E.g2 being false is higher than that of E.g1 but both examples are inductive.

•However, if we look at E.g3, we realize that it is not possible for the conclusion to be false when we assume the premises to be true, so E.g3 is a valid DEDUCTIVE argument and for that matter has the LOGICAL STRUCTURE or PATTERN of MODUS PONENS.
•This means that an inductive argument does not provide the structure or pattern of logical proof like MODUS PONENS, MODUS TOLLENS, HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM AND DISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISM as it is in the case of deductive argument.(refer to session 9)
• But rather it’s premises provide evidence that confirms the likelihood or degree of probability of the conclusion being True. There is no certainty with inductive reasoning. This is because no matter how good the evidence or reasons are, it is still possible for the conclusion drawn to turn out to be false.

Topic Two
CONTRASTING VERIFIABLE STATEMENT AND CONFIRMABLE STATEMENT

What are verifiable statements and confirmable statements
•Because we treat the premises of inductive arguments as evidence or observation reports out which conclusions are drawn, the statements that make up inductive arguments from the premises to the conclusion are understood or examined in terms of verifiable statements and confirmable statements
•VERIFIABLE STATEMENTS are the same as PARTICULAR STATEMENTS. They are also called evidence, data, test results, observation reports or research findings.
•They are called verifiable statements because as particular statements their reference classes are finite. That is the subject is fixed or countable.

We can know the total number of the subject and because of that we can always cross check to determine whether they are true or false.
•Examples:
1. Next week Friday it will rain.
2. The students in this class are from the distance education school.
3. Accra is filthy.
•All the above examples can be determined to be true or false. For instance, in E.g1, we wait to see if it will rain next week Friday. In E.g2, we can get the students in that particular class and inquire if they are all from distance education school.

We can also embark on a survey in Accra to see whether there no filth can be found in any part of Accra, because the statement refers to only one city ( Accra).
• Thus when it comes to verifiable statements, because their reference classes or subjects are finite(particular statements), a test or an experiment or observation can be done to establish directly in one, two or few times, to determine whether they are true or false.
•We therefore define verifiable statement as a statement that is directly testable through experience because its reference class or subject is finite(countable).
•NB: All verifiable statements are particular statements.

•CONFIRMABLE STATEMENTS on the other hand are the same as GENERAL STATEMENTS. They are also call hypotheses.
•EXAMPLES:
1. Every Friday it rains.
2. All students are from distance education school.
3. Some taxi drivers in Accra can speak Chinese.
4. Some students cheat in exams.
5. All snakes are poisonous.
•All the above statements are CONFIRMABLE STATEMENTS because their reference classes or subjects are infinite(uncountable) .

Because their subjects are uncountable we cannot test or observe directly to determine fully whether they are true or false.
•For instance, there are uncountable number of Fridays. So we cannot get access empirically to all Fridays to determine if it rains on each Friday. So the best we can do is monitor all the Fridays for a period to see if it rained or will rain. However that will not exhaust all the Fridays that E.g1 refers to. Thus even if it rains on all the Fridays for the period of 10years, in the 11th, 12th, or 13th year it is possible that it will not rain on one particular Friday and that will make the statement, “every Friday it rains” false. The same for E.g2 & E.g5.

•If we take the E.g3, we realize that the reference class “some taxi drivers in Accra” is infinite as well, because if we do a survey we might gather a sample of 50 taxi drivers, but there could be others who can also speak Chinese but we might not include them in our sample so in effect the actual reference class may be more than 50. They may be 100, 200, 1000, etc. So here again we cannot get the total reference class so we only select just a sample to test the statement and that sample will not exhaust the reference class of the statement in E.g3 on page 14. The same analysis can be done on the E.g4 as well.
•Thus CONFIRMABLE statements are testable indirectly because their reference class are infinite. That is the subject is limitless in number to ascertain or count them all.

•We only gather a sample or evidence to test them, however what ever may be the results of our observation or sample or evidence, we project to be the result of the confirmable statement.
•Thus confirmable statements are testable indirectly based on the results of verifiable statements.
•We therefore define confirmable statement as statements that are indirectly testable through experience because their reference classes or subjects are infinite(countable).
•NB: All confirmable statements are general statements and they are also called hypotheses.

Click on the link below to Download the complete PDF of this session.

Download Here

Thank You!

Read More

Critical Thinking Slide 9

CRITICAL THINKING &PRACTICAL REASONING

Session 9 –DEDUCTION VS. INDUCTION(PART 2)

Session Overview
•Deductive arguments or valid arguments may take varied forms. In this course, students will be introduced to syllogisms. Understanding of syllogisms will be good following the discussion that took place in session 8. This session continues discussions on DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS solely.
•Goals and Objectives
At the end of the session, the student will
1. Be able identify and construct arguments that are syllogistic.
2. Identify syllogisms as they are written with universal negations.
3. Familiar with syllogistic fallacies.

Session Outline
The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows:
•Topic One: UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATION, UNIVERSAL NEGATIONS AND CONDITIONAL STATEMENT.
•Topic Two : THE FOUR VALID SYLLOGISMS(DEDUCTIVE
ARGUMENTS).
•Topic Three: SOUND ARGUMENT VS VALID ARGUMENT

Topic One
UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATION, UNIVERSAL NEGATION, AND CONDITIONAL STATEMENT
UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATION AND UNIVERSAL NEGATION

UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATION
•They are statements in the form ALL As are Bs.
•Examples:
1. All cats have claws.       
2. All snakes are poisonous.
3. Every metal expand when heated.
4. Every day it rains.
5. Students cheat in exams.

UNIVERSAL NEGATION
•They are the opposite of universal affirmation. Their structure looks like this.
•“No As are Bs” or “All As are not Bs”. Examples are:
1. No cat has claws.
2. ALL cats do not have class.
3. No student cheats in exams.
4. All students do not cheat in exams.

CONDITIONAL STATEMENT
•A conditional statement on the other hand is any statement expressed in the form “IF (X is an A) THEN (X is a B).”
•E.g1 If “you pay your school fees” then “you will be allowed to write the exams”.
•E.g2 If “Kwame is a student of UG” then “he reads critical thinking”.
•Every conditional statement has two parts, the antecedent and the consequent.
•The antecedent is the condition that must occur first before the other condition or event will occur. It is the statement that comes immediately after the “IF”.
•The consequent on the other hand is the effect or condition expected to take place after the antecedent has occurred. It is the statement that comes immediately after the “THEN”.

Click on the link below to Download the complete PDF of this session.


Download Here

Thank You!

Read More

Critical Thinking Slide 8

CRITICAL THINKING & PRACTICAL REASONING

Session 8 – DEDUCTION VS. INDUCTION ( PART 1)

Session Overview
•Students will be thought how arguments are constructed in the forms of deduction and induction. This will be done in order to teach them the requirements of these arguments for intellectual acceptability.
•Goals and Objectives
At the end of the session, the student will
1. Be able to distinguish bad and good ways of distinguishing between deductive and inductive arguments.
2. understand the difference between particular and general statements.
3. Understand the difference between reference class and attribute class of a statement.

Session Outline
The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows:
•Topic One: ARGUMENT.
•Topic Two : THE TWO TYPES OF STATEMENT THAT APPEAR IN ALMOST EVERY ARGUMENT
(a) Particular Statement
(b) General Statement
•Topic Three: THE TWO TYPES OF ARGUMENT
(a) Deductive Argument
(b) Inductive Argument

Topic One
ARGUMENT

What is an ARGUMENT.
•In session 5, we were introduced to an argument as a passage that is made up statements with premises and one conclusion.
• The premises are the reasons or justifications that support the conclusion. And the conclusion is the claim or belief or opinion of the person making the argument.
•Examples:
1. All professional football players are rich. Essien is a professional football player.
Therefore Essien is rich.(conclusion)

2. Two independent witness claim they saw john commit the murder. John’s finger prints are all over the murder weapon and John himself confessed to the crime. So we can conclude that John committed the murder.(conclusion)
3. For all the number of times that teachers had gone on strike. It has been because the government has refused to pay their research and book allowances. This year, government mentioned that as part of the changes to be made in the educational sector, the book and research allowances will be “taken off” the educational budget. So I foresee a strike action taking place before the year ends.(conclusion)

Topic Two
THE TWO TYPES OF STATEMENT THAT APPEAR IN ALMOST EVERY ARGUMENT.

STATEMENT
•A statements can be defined as a sentence that can either be true or false.
• The premises and conclusion of an argument are all expressed in the form of statements. However the nature the statements are such that they come in two forms. The PARTICULAR STATEMENT and The GENERAL STATEMENT.
•But FOR statement to be particular or general its REFERENCE CLASS must first be determined.

What then is the REFERENCE CLASS of a statement.
•Every statement has two parts.
•The reference class:- this the grammatical subject of the statement.
E.g.1. Joshua and Kofi are reading in the library.
2. A small group of taxi drivers in Accra can speak Chinese.
•The attribute class:- this is the attribute or property or action that the statement tells us about the subject.( the predicate of the statement)
•E.g. 1. Joshua and Kofi are reading in the library.
2. A small group of taxi drivers in Accra can speak Chinese.

•However, it is the reference class part, of every statement that determines the type of statement.
•A PARTICULAR STATEMENT is a statement with a finite(countable) reference class(subject)
•Examples:
1. Joshua and Kofi are reading in the library ( two individuals)
2. The water in this person’s bucket is finish. ( one person’s bucket)
3. Accra is filthy. ( one city)
4. All the students in this class are Distance education students.

(we can get to know the total number of the students in the class). Thus they are all particular statement because their reference classes are countable(finite).
•A GENERAL STATEMENT on the other hand is a statement with an infinite(uncountable) reference class(subject).
•Examples:
1. A small group of taxi drivers in Accra can speak Chinese.
2. All students are distance education students
3. No human being can fly.
4. Some Ghanaians have not traveled before.
5. All students from University of Ghana read critical thinking.

We cannot count to know the total number of each reference class from the above examples. In e.g1 we cannot tell the exact number of small taxi drivers in Accra whether 20, 30, 60, 100, or 200. In e.g2 we cannot count the total number of students. It refers to students anywhere as well as those who are yet to become students. So it is infinite. The same can be said of e.g3. and e.g5. In e.g4 how many Ghanaians are “some”. The “some” can be half the population of Ghana or a quarter so it is also infinite.
• NB. Thus the two types of statement are particular and general statement. And very often the premises and the conclusion of any argument comprise these two types of statement. However note that they are not what makes a passage an argument but rather the presence of premises and conclusion.

Topic Three
THE TWO TYPES OF ARGUMENT

DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE
•The two types of argument are deductive argument and inductive argument. But before we look at what they essentially are, let’s consider the inappropriate or wrong way to define an inductive argument and deductive argument.
•The mistaken way of distinguishing an inductive argument from deductive argument is to define inductive argument as:
•the type of argument that moves from particular statements as premises to a general statement as conclusion E.g.
1. I saw ten vandals and they were all wearing red.(particular statement)premises. So I can conclude that all vandals wear red. (general statement) conclusion.

•And define Deductive argument as the type of argument that moves from general statement as premises to particular statement as conclusion.
• E.g.
1. All vandals wear red.(general statement)premise
Ten vandals are visiting me today.(particular statement)premise
So they must wear red.(particular statement)conclusion
•NB. To define inductive and deductive this way is to claim that all inductive and deductive arguments look like this always. But this is false because not all inductive and deductive arguments look like this. The above definitions are too narrow.

Click on the link below to Download the complete PDF of this session.
Download Here

Thank You!

Read More

Critical Thinking Slide 7

CRITICAL THINKING &PRACTICAL REASONING

Session 7 – THE NORMATIVE AND THE EMPIRICAL ( PART 2)

Session Overview
•This session is a continuation of the discussion of UNIT 5 of the recommended text for the course. It builds on the knowledge gained in session 6 above to discuss LAW and the different senses it could be understood.
•Goals and Objectives
At the end of the session, the student should
1. be able to identify and explain the senses of law.
2. understand the difference between law-like hypothesis and theoretical definitions.

Session Outline
The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows:
•Topic One: THE SIX SENSES OF ‘LAW’
a. Natural law
b. Civil law or Statutory law
(i)Customary law VS Cultural norm, social rule, convention
c. Moral law
d. logical law
e. Mathematical law
f. Divine law

Topic One
THE SIX SENSES OF ‘LAW’

LAW
•There is no one definition for the word ‘law’ but rather different notions. Depending on the context of usage, the word law can mean a natural law, civil law or customary law, a moral law, law of reasoning, mathematical law or divine law.
•Law is a system of rules or general principles that governs the nature of things, or the way individuals are supposed to behave.
•Laws are expressed in the form of statements.
•Some laws are descriptive and others are prescriptive

NATURAL LAW.
•Natural laws also called scientific laws refer to statements that expresses laws about nature(living things, rivers, celestial bodies etc).
•They are defined as statements that aim to describe the regularities or uniformities in the patterns of event or features of things we observe around us.
•They are formed based on our past experiences. For instance, we observe that at any point in time when a fish is taking out of water for a maximum of five minutes, it dies so we conclude that “all fish survive in water” as a statement that expresses an attribute or a property that applies to all fish any where, anytime.

EXAMPLES
1. Every planet moves around the sun in an elliptical orbit.
2. All metals expand when heated.
3. Any physical object that goes up must come down.
4. All green plants use sunlight for photosynthesis.
5. All fish live in water.
6. Every human being breath oxygen.

NB
•Natural law statements are supposed to meet with no exceptions and are therefore called law-like. But there is no way to be absolutely certain that such statements will always be true. So they are called law-like because maybe someday counterevidence will make them false

•Natural laws are disguised predictions. They predict about future realities. The statement “all metals expand when heated” means that “if you come across any metallic object and you heat it then expect it to expand.”
•But what if you discover a new metal and it does not expand upon heating it, then it will make the statement “all metals expand when heated” to be false.
•Scientific laws always depend upon evidence, and they are predictions. They may turn out to be false so we call them law-like statements.(hypothesis)
•NB: Since they describe regularities and uniformities in the patterns of events around us they are EMPIRICAL.

CIVIL LAW AND STATUTORY LAW
•CIVIL LAWS AND STATUTORY LAWS are man-made laws that represent the legal instruments that governments of states use to regulate the behavior of citizens. They prescribe how citizens ought to behave in specific circumstances.
•They are laws backed by force since they come with sanctions.
•NB: They are prescriptive statements since they express what one should do or must not do, so they are NORMATIVE.

Examples
1. Commercial laws
2. Tax laws
3. Constitutional statutes
4. Land tenure regulations
5. Rules for electoral process.
6. Criminal laws in response to rape, stealing, murder, manslaughter, assault.
7. Human rights laws, traffic laws, interstate laws etc.

NB
•If these laws are broken by individuals, the individuals are rather punished. Violations do not make the laws falsified and for that matter must be changed. The laws still remain and sanctions are carried out. This is what makes it different from natural laws. The sanctions attached are what makes them laws to be obeyed by all citizens.

CUSTOMARY LAW
•Another aspect of civil law or statutory law is the customary law since both can be found as two complementary legal systems in some countries.
•Just like the civil laws or statutory laws, they are man-made and also have sanctions attached to them to regulate behaviors of members of a particular community, clan or lineage. The system of authority that enforces the customary laws are Chiefs, clan heads etc.

Examples
1.Taboos like incest, not farming or fishing on a particular day.
2.The traditional customary marriage.
3.Acknowledgements of chiefs as traditional custodians of lands.
4.Traditional inheritance system and marriage system. etc
•NB CUSTOMARY LAWS ARE ALSO NORMATIVE.

Customary laws and cultural norms
•Customary laws are distinguished from cultural norms, social rules and conventions in the sense that the latter are not laws and they do not have sanctions attached to them in case of any violation.
•Examples of cultural norms are wearing of certain kinds of apparel in certain public and private circumstances, dietary rules, worship behavior, observance of public holidays and public ceremonies etc.
•NB: Cultural norms or social rules are the commonly adhered practices in a society that normally do not attract any severe form of punishment or sanction.

MORAL LAW
•MORAL laws are usually presumed or taken to be more forceful than customs, norms and they are different from what is legally sanctioned or required by legislation.
•They are presumed to be universal, transcending ones culture, religion, constitution or society.
•Examples .
1.It is morally wrong to steal.
2.It is wrong to kill.
3.It is morally right to respect other people’s views.
4.To legalize segregation is morally wrong.
NB: MORAL LAWS ARE ALSO NORMATIVE.

LOGICAL LAW
WHAT IS IT.
•LOGICAL laws are the principles or rules for thinking. They guide us in reason well.
•They guide us in distinguishing good reasoning from bad reasoning.
•They are deductive in nature. Since they guarantee that if your starting point( assumptions or premises) are true then your final conclusion will also be true.

Examples
1. All university of Ghana students read UGRC I50.(premise)
Kwabena is a student from University of Ghana. (premise)
So Kwabena reads UGRC 150.(conclusion)
2. All fish live in water. (premise)
Any animal that lives in water can swim.(premise)
So all fish can swim.(conclusion)
NB: Logical laws prescribe how we ought to think so they are also NORMATIVE

MATHEMATICAL LAWS
WHAT ARE THEY
•These are laws that regulate the way operations in mathematics ought to be done.
•We have rules for mathematical practices and descriptive laws that summarize the results of mathematical practice for all time.

Examples
1. Laws of addition, subtraction, division, multiplication. AND
2. Never divide by zero, Laws of indices are all general rules of mathematical practices.
3. Every even number is the sum of two odd numbers, is an example of a descriptive law that summarize the results of mathematical practice of all time.
•NB. Mathematical laws are also NORMATIVE

DIVINE LAW
WHAT IS IT.
•These are laws whose contents come from a particular religious doctrine.
•The authority of such laws come from a supreme being,(deity, God, god)
•They are prescriptive in nature so they are also NORMATIVE.
•They are subject to revelation as the means by which they are made available to man and can be changed.

EXAMPLES
1. The ten commandments of Christians.
2. The sharia law of the Muslims.
3. Laws against homosexuals.
4. Laws against abortion.
5. Some religions practice monogamous marriage while others practice polygamous marriage.
•NB DIVINE LAWS are binding only on the practitioners of religion.

 Click on the link below to Doownload the complete PDF of this session.

Download Here

Thank You!

Read More

Critical Thinking Slide 6

CRITICAL THINKING & PRACTICAL REASONING

Session 6 – THE NORMATIVE AND THE EMPIRICAL ( PART 1)

Session Overview
•In session 1 , it was mentioned that declarative sentences included value judgments and factual judgments. This session is meant to discuss these judgments further, referring to value judgments as normative sentences and factual judgments as empirical sentences.
•Goals and Objectives
At the end of the session, the student should
1. Be able to identify factual sentences and value judgments.
2. Understand that a sentence could be both normative and empirical.

Session Outline
The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows:
•Topic One: CONTRASTING FACTS AND VALUES
(a) factual sentences(empirical)
(b) value judgments(normative)
•Topic Two EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT MEANINGS OF STATEMENT

Topic One
CONTRASTING FACTS AND VALUES.

FACTUAL STATEMENTS(EMPIRICAL)
•In session 1, “Thoughts as Object of Scrutiny” we were made to understand factual statements as expressions that describe the way the world is. What this means is that, they give a report of the way the world is as we experience them with our senses.
• We call them EMPIRICAL because they are expressions derived from experience or observations and they are verifiable.
•NB. They are objective truths. There is some way of investigating the world and its state of affairs in order to tell if they(factual statements) are true or false., whomever you are.

Examples
1. Those boys in the yard are setting fire to that cat.
2. Your brother is 6 feet 2 inches tall
3. Zoe is hungry
4. Obama won the 2008 USA election.
5. This copper strip expanded when it was heated to 120 degrees Fahrenheit.
6. Some flowers are larger than others.
7. This shirt is green.
8. The adult human body has 206 bones.
•NB. All the above statements can all be determined to be true or false upon observation. They are facts and can be proved with evidence.

VALUE JUDGMENT(NORMATIVE)
•Value judgments on the other hand are expressions that prescribe or evaluate the way the world or things or someone should or ought to be.
•It is also called NORMATIVE because it states a standard or norm to prescribe or evaluate an action or behavior or something.
•They are statements or claims that are based on someone’s belief.

Examples
1. Nana Addo will be an excellent candidate for president.(why?)
2. The use of animals in lab testing is cruel and must be stopped. (why?)
3. You should save money. (why?)
4. We ought not to lie. (why?)
5. Saving money is good. (why?)
6. Jack is a fine man. (why?)
7. You should not leave the water running. (why?)
8. You should not hit your brother. (why?)
9. The Bahamas is the most beautiful place on Earth. (why?)
•NB VALUE JUDGMENTS certification depends upon principles of morality or on criteria of worth or utility. ( This shows there are moral and non moral value judgments)

Topic Two
EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT MEANINGS OF STATEMENTS.

Explicit and implicit meanings of statements
•Some statements tend to convey two meanings such that in some sense they may be interpreted as facts(describing an observation) and in another sense will be understood as value judgments ( prescribing or evaluating an observation).
•When this happens, such an expression is said to have an explicit and implicit meaning.
•Explicit refers to the obvious meaning
•Implicit refers to the intended or hidden meaning. it is the opposite of explicit.

Examples
1. This car provides the best mileage for its price.
2. Without IMF policies rescuing the Ghanaian population, the country would have deteriorated into a civil war like the rest of west Africa.
3. The recent patrol of the police force in this area has reduced the menace of arm robbery incidents in the neighborhood.
4. Asamoah Gyan is a successful man.
5. The virtuous effort of the S.R.C executives will benefit the students of University of Ghana and this will serve as precedence for other S.R.C executives from other universities.

•All the above examples have explicit and implicit meanings. They all appear to be making explicitly factual declarations but implicitly they are all value judgments.
• The use of best in eg1, and successful in eg4, and virtuous, precedence in eg5 are all value laden.
•In eg2 the IMF policies are seen as a good thing for Ghana.
•In eg3 the police patrol force is also seen as a good development for the neighborhood.
•The cause of this is that because of the inability to always make a conscious effort to distinguish between when we are expressing a value judgment and when we are making a factual declaration, we confuse them and end up making expressions or statements that have explicit and implicit meanings.
•NB EXPLICIT(FACTUAL), IMPLICIT(VALUE JUDGMENT).

Click on the link below to Download the complete PDF of this session.

Download Here

Thank You!

Read More

Critical Thinking Slide 5

CRITICAL THINKING & PRACTICAL REASONING

Session 5 – CONTRASTING TYPES OF DISCOURSE

Session Overview
•Individuals engage in a discourse use language, very often with the intention of being understood. Yet, this sometimes ends up in disputes and difficulties in understanding caused by different factors. This session introduces students to these factors and how to avoid them.
•Goals and Objectives
At the end of the session, the student will understand
1. types of dispute.
2. the difference and relation between metaphors and proverbs
3. linguistic vices such as vagueness and equivocation, and how to avoid them.
4. the types of discourse revealed in passages.

Session Outline
The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows:
•Topic One: TYPES OF DISPUTES
a. verbal disputes
b. substantive disputes
•Topic Two : METAPHORS AND PROVERBS
•Topic Three: COMMON LINGUISTIC VICES
•Topic Four: TYPES OF DISCOURSE REVEALED IN PASSAGES.

Topic One
TYPES OF DISPUTE

•A dispute may be defined as a disagreement or a controversy or difference of opinion between two or more people. Or Basically an argument between two or more people.
•For instance, if I say my grand mother was a good woman and you say she was a horrible woman then we can say there is a dispute in opinion about my grand mother.
•However, we will be looking at these two types of dispute.
1.Verbal disputes
2.Substantive disputes

Verbal Disputes
•A verbal dispute is a disagreement which occurs as a result of difference in opinion about the meaning of a word and the dispute can be resolved easily when the meaning is clarified. That is, when two parties to dispute are interpreting a particular word differently and that is what causes them to disagree with each other.
•Examples:
1. Kpanlogo is a traditional folkloric dance that our Ga ancestors used to dance only at funerals for hundreds of years.
NO! Kpanlogo is a neo-traditional popular dance that the dance-band Otoo Lincoln and his group created in Bukom Square, Accra, around 1962. He relied on the old funeral dirges to build up a versatile form of popular dance which suits every occasion nowadays, including funerals. This is a verbal dispute because the dance “kpanlogo” is what is causing them to disagree.

2.Kwame has new laptop. No, he does not, his brother gave him his old computer when he upgraded, and that computer is at least five years old. So does kwame have a “new” laptop? This depends on how one defines “new”. So this is also a verbal dispute.
•Verbal disputes can be dissolved by means of a stipulative definition where the parties to the dispute finally settle on a common usage or meaning of the word causing them to disagree in the first place.

Substantive Dispute
•On the other hand if the disagreement or dispute is about the expression of different opinions about facts or subscription to contrasting values then the dispute in question is considered as a substantive dispute.
•Example:
1. The US army personnel are helping Iraqi citizens because their presence maintains a peaceful and secure environment. No, these US soldiers are imposing martial law and have orders to target civilians so they pose a threat to Iraqi citizens. This is a substantive dispute since the only way we can know who is telling the truth is to check the facts on the ground.

•NB. When a dispute still exists after clarifying the ambiguity in the usage of a word between two parties then that dispute is a substantive dispute but if the dispute dissolves then it is a verbal dispute.

Topic Two
METAPHORS AND PROVERBS

•Metaphors and proverbs involve vague use of language that carries many associations. They are the type o sentences that can carry more than one meaning simultaneously and which also have different functions, depending on the circumstances.
•METAPHORS:- A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is used to describe an object or action with which it does not normally have an association in order to imply a connection.
•PROVERBS:- They are phrases that embody some advice or commonly believed fact. They can also be referred to as axioms, truisms, clichés and adages.

•Examples of metaphors and proverbs are;
1.Time is money.(metaphor)
2.Juliet is the apple of my eye.(metaphor)
3.Life is war.(metaphor)
4.Birds of a feather flock together.(proverb)
5.When a palm-branch reaches its height, it gives way for a fresh one to grow.(proverb)
. Understanding metaphors and proverbs depends so much upon the situation and mood and reception and background knowledge or preparedness of listeners to appreciate and interpret the multiplicity of the meaning of metaphors and proverbs. Individuals can read their own meanings into metaphors and proverbs.

•Thus metaphors and proverbs cannot be relied upon to convey a single objective meaning. They are useful in inspiring, motivating and advising and to speak on topics that are socially powerful and highly charged.
•NB. To be very clear and straight forward in conveying information it is usually best to avoid metaphorical and proverbial expressions. This is because their interpretations are open-ended and indecisive.
•For instance, referring to kwame as a lion, he might interpret it to mean that he is an animal and for that matter lives in the forest when you intend to mean that he is brave or courageous.

Click on the link below to Download the complete PDF of this session.


Download Here

Thank You!

Read More

Critical Thinking Slide 4

CRITICAL THINKING &PRACTICAL REASONING

Session 2 – SELF ASSESSMENT

Session Overview
•As practical as this course is, students are expected to engage in self evaluation or revision and intensify their handling of the UGRC course materials and questions in order to enhance their chances of doing well in the Interim Assessment to be held within this week.
•Students must go over what have been discussed up to session 3 thoroughly for the Interim Assessment.
•READ units 1 and 2 covered so far from the recommended text and attempt the activities at the end of each unit.
•Watch again the videos for session 1- session 3 for clarification on anything that you do not understand.

Click on the link below to Download the complete PDF of this session.

Download Here

Thank You!

Read More

Critical Thinking Slide 3

CRITICAL THINKING & PRACTICAL REASONING

Session 3 – DEFINITIONS ( PART 2)

Session Overview
•In this session we shall continue with the discussion of the types of definition. Specifically, only stipulative and real definitions will be handled. Then we shall look at what it is for a term to be well-defined or open textured, and finally diagnose problems with definitions.
 
•Goals and Objectives
At the end of the session, the student will
1. understand the different ways a real definition could be called and the importance of such a definition.
2. Be able to recognize when a definition is vague, circular, too narrow and too broad.
3. Explain why well-defined term is most preferred to open textured.

Session Outline
The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows:
•Topic One: TYPES OF DEFINITION( CONTINUED)
a. Stipulative definition
b. Real definition
•Topic Two : WELL-DEFINED TERM VERSUS OPEN TEXTURED WORD.
•Topic Three PROBLEMS WITH DEFINITIONS

Topic One
TYPES OF DEFINITION(CONTINUED)

Stipulative Definition
•When the meaning of a word is agreed on for the purpose of debate or a discussion or a project then we say a stipulative definition has been established. Thus a stipulative definition is based on deliberation and agreement or through consensus.
•Example:
1.Suppose if some one says: that to love someone is to be willing to die for that person.
2.Take "human" to mean any member of the species Homo sapiens.
3.For the purposes of argumentation, we will define a "student" to be "a person under 18 enrolled in a local school."

Real Definitions.
•A real definition is a definition that provides the core meaning or the essential meaning of a word. That is to say a definition of what a word appropriately stands for.
•Such a definition provides all the features and only those features that appropriately belong to a word.
•Example:
1. Even number is any number that is divisible by two without a remainder.

•Real definition is also called well-defined definition, ideal definition, and eliminative definition.
• When a term is well defined, it means that the definition makes it completely clear all the things or objects in the world that are correctly called or picked out by the word

•For any eliminative definition, the definiendum could be eliminated and replaced by the definiens in every context where the word which is being defined is used. This is because the definition provides the necessary and sufficient conditions for using the word correctly.
•Illustration:
•Lets consider the definition of an even number as an eliminative definition.
•Even number is any whole number that is divisible by two without a remainder.

•Definiendum – even number
•Definiens – any whole number divisible by two without a remainder.
Now lets consider the statement “all multiples of two are even numbers” for the illustration.
1.All multiples of two are even numbers.
Results are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,………..
2. All multiples of two are whole numbers divisible by two without any remainders.
Results are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10………

•We can see from the above illustration that when the defineindum was replaced with the definiens, the same meaning was obtained from the statement. The truth of the statement “all multiples of two are even numbers” remains the same.
•This is what it means to say a definition is eliminative.
•NB achieving the essential meaning of words enables us to avoid vagueness and ambiguity in the construction of the meanings of words.

Click on the link below to Download the complete PDF of this session.

Download Here

Thank You!

Read More

Critical Thinking Slide 2

CRITICAL THINKING &PRACTICAL REASONING

Session 2 – DEFINITIONS ( PART 1)

Session Overview
•Contrary to what many students might suppose before their exposure to this course, there are different types of definition. The type of definition found in the dictionary which is also the one with which students are familiar, is just one of the six definitions that will be discussed. In this session, a distinction will be made between connotation and denotation of a word, after which the lexical, ostensive, operational and theoretical definitions will be discussed.
•Goals and Objectives:
at the end the session, student will
1.Understand when the connotation or denotation of a word is implied in a definition
2.Be able to tell the differences and relationship that exist between the connotation and denotation of a word.
3.Be able to write good examples of connotation and denotation of a word.

Session OutlineThe key topics to be covered in the session are as follows:
•Topic One: DEFINITIONS
sub topic: connotation and denotation
•Topic Three: THE TWO PARTS OF A STANDARD DEFINITION
•Topic Four: TYPES OF DEFINITIONS:
(a) lexical definition
(b) Ostensive definition
(c) Operational definition
(d) theoretical definition
(e) stipulative definition. session 3(part2)
(f) real definition. session3 (part2)

Topic One
DEFINITIONS

What is DEFINITION
•Definition is a declarative sentences that conveys or present the meaning of a word.
•Examples:
1. Even number is any number that is divisible by two without a remainder.
2. Culture is the way of life of people; their norms, values, music, and beliefs that are transmitted from one generation to the other.
3. Bank is a place where moneys are kept or borrowed

Sub Topic
CONNOTATION AND DENOTATION

•In conveying the meaning of a word, there are two ways that we can do that. We can either convey the meaning of a word by CONNOTATION or DENOTATION.
•CONNOTATION:- This is when the meaning of a word gives a description of the features or attributes or properties of range of objects in the world to which the word may be applied.
•Examples. ( head, mobile phone, )
1.Head is the upper part of a human body or an animal’s body that contains the brain and the face.
2. Mobile phone is an electronic device for receiving and making calls.
•NB. This is what it means to define a word by CONNOTATION.
•DENOTATION:- This refers to the collection of all the things in the world that are correctly picked out by a word’s connotation. It refers to the definition that coveys the meaning of a word by giving examples.

•Examples:
•The meaning of mobile phone for example are Samsung phone, Nokia lumia phone, Motorola phone, LG Phone.
•The meaning of even number for example are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, .
•NB. This is what it means to define a word by DENOTATION.

•However the relationship that exist between the connotation and the denotation is that, given the connotation of word, we can identify or determine it’s denotation.
•For instance;
If the word ‘Head’ is defined as “the upper part of the human body or an animal’s body that contains the brain and the face”, then its denotations will be the head of every human being on earth as well as that of an animal.

•But the same word ‘Head’ can also be defined as referring to “someone who is in charge of an operation or institution.” In this instance the denotations will be all persons that are in charge of specific operations or particular institutions.
•Thus depending on the connotation of a word will we be able to determine a the denotations.
•NB. IF a word has several connotations, each connotation will have their respective denotations.

Topic Two
THE TWO PARTS OF A STANDARD DEFINITION.

The parts of a DEFINITION.
Every standard definition must have two parts. The definiendum and the definiens.
 
•DEFINIENDUM:- The word to be defined which is the subject of the definition(statement)
Example:
1 Even number is any number that is divisible by two without a remainder.
2.Triangle is a plane figure with three side and has all the interior angles summing up to 180 degrees.

DEFINIENS:- The rest of the definition that conveys the meaning of the word( definiendum). It gives the word’s connotation.
•Example:
1. Even number is any number that is divisible by two without a remainder.
2.Triangle is a plane figure with three side and has all the interior angles summing up to 180 degrees.
3. Widow is a woman whose husband is dead.

Topic Three
TYPES OF DEFINITION

The types of DEFINITION
•When we talk about the “types of definition” we mean the different sources of and methods for creating or deriving definitions or meaning of words. In this course we will be discussing only six different types of definition. However in this session we will be looking at only four of the six types of definition.
•The Six Types Are As Follows.

1.  LEXICAL DEFINITION
2.  OSTENSIVE DEFINITION
3.  OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
4.  THEORETICAL DEFINITION
5.  STIPULATIVE DEFINITION session3(part2)*
6.  REAL DEFINITION session3(part2)*

Click on the link below to Download the complete PDF of this session.


Download Here

Thank You!

Read More

Critical Thinking Slide 1

CRITICAL THINKING & PRACTICAL REASONING

Session 1 – THOUGHTS AS OBJECTS OF SCRUTINY

Session Overview
Humans are thinking beings and they very often express their thoughts in the form of language. This session seeks to get students to understand the need and how to treat thoughts as objects of study. Here students will be taught the following: sentences and statements; interrogatives, imperative and declaratives; and also study the distinction between sentence fragment and emotive expressions.

Goals and Objectives
•At the end of the session, the student will
•Be able to tell what a sentence is.
•Be able to identify the subject and predicate of a sentence.
•Be able to tell how a sentence differ from a statement.
•Be able to tell why some interrogatives are imperatives.
•Understand declarative sentence.
•Be able to contrast factual sentence with imperative.
•Understand the difference between sentence fragment and emotive expressions.

Session Outline

The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows:
•Topic One: SENTENCE and STATEMENT
•Topic Two : TYPES OF SENTENCE SHAPE THOUGHTS
sub topic one: INTERROGATIVES
sub topic two: IMPERATIVES
sub topic three: DECLARATIVE
•Topic Three: RECOGNIZING SENTENCE FRAGMENTS AND EMOTIVE EXPRESSIONS

Reading List
•Log onto the UG Sakai LMS course site: http://sakai.ug.edu.gh/xxxxxxxxx
•Read Unit 1 of Recommended Text –pages 4-12
•Watch the Videos for session 1- Thoughts as Objects of scrutiny
•Visit the Chat Room and discuss the Forum question for session 1

Topic one

SENTENCE AND STATEMENT

What is a SENTENCE.
•A sentence is a group of words that has a subject and predicate, independent on its own and makes meaning.
•SUBJECT- the person or thing that the sentence talks about.
•PREDICATE- The part of the sentence that talks about the subject.
•Examples:
1. Joan is a student.
2. Mathematics is an interesting subject.
3. You are great!

•SUBJECT
1. Joan is a student.
2. Mathematics is an interesting subject.
3. You are great!
•PREDICATE
1. Joan is a student.
2. Mathematics is an interesting subject.
3. You are great!

What is a STATEMENT
A statement is a sentence that says something which is either true or false. Examples, 1. "Socrates is a man.", 2. "A triangle has three sides.", 3. "Madrid is the capital of Spain.", 4. “UGRC I50 is a compulsory course for all students in University of Ghana.”
. However NOT all sentences are statements. Examples,
• "Who are you?"
•"Run!"
•"Greenness perambulates"
•"I had one grunch but the eggplant over there."
NB: Statements are Truth Bearers.

Topic two

TYPES OF SENTENCE SHAPE THOUGHTS

Introduction
•Sentence-shape thought refers to the different forms of sentences that express the different thoughts of human beings.
• Some sentences serve to ask questions to gain information while others issue a directive or request to get something done. Some sentences also convey information.
•The types of sentence-shape thought are Interrogative, imperative, and declarative sentences.
•The types of sentence shape thought are complete sentences. The subject and the predicate are present.

Sub topic one
INTERROGATIVES

What are INTERROGATIVES
•Interrogatives also called questions are sentences expressed to seek for information. If the correct answers are provided then they are successful.
•Examples:
1.Did you take your vitamin this morning?
2.Do you want coffee, tea, or soda?
3.Where do you live?
4.Who is playing in the Super Bowl?
5.There’s a game on today, isn’t there?
NB. Interrogatives are not Truth Bearers;
They are not true or false sentences

Sub topic two
IMPERATIVES

What are IMPERATIVES
•Imperatives are sentences expressed to get someone to perform an action. They are also called directives, commands, and requests.
•Examples: commands-
1.Take that chewing gum out of your mouth.
2.Stand up straight.
3.Give me the details.
•Examples: directives-
1.Open your book.
2.Take two tablets every evening.
3.Take a left and then a right.
•Examples: request-
1.Please, close the door.
2.Please, can you help me cross the street?
3.Can you open the window?
•However, when imperatives are made in a polite manner, it turns to have an explicit and implicit meaning at the same time. NB Imperatives are also not truth bearers.

Click on the link below to Download the complete PDF of this session.

Download Here

Thank You!

Read More

Critical Thinking Study Guide

Hello friends, click on the link below to get access to the study guide for Critical Thinking.

Download Now

Thank You!

Read More